Challenges of Local Government Institutions in Bangladesh

1. Ideas and practices of local government:

Most people reconsider public representatives as local guardians who work with them, and with whom they can share all sorts of personal, social, religious and political thoughts and beliefs. With the growth in power and volume of activities of the government, the accountability and duty of the local government has also been increased by some times. Colse to the world most challenges people face are local. So, the best way to solve them is straight through local initiatives and local leadership by awakening and mobilizing people. Authorities closest to the people or rather citizens themselves by getting directly involved can greatly contribute in solving public problems. This is how the local government takes its shape. Local government brings decision-making closer to the people. A strong local government law can ensure good governance straight through transparency, accountability, sufficient participation and equal opportunities for all. Most importantly, this law can ensure amelioration at the grassroots level. Strong local government institutions progress democracy, ensure good governance, and at the same time quicken the pace of political and socioeconomic amelioration of the country.

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1.1. New view of local government:

Local government is based on society governance, and focused on citizen-centered local governance. It is the primary agent for the citizens and leader and gatekeeper for shared rule, is responsive and accountable to local voters. It is purchaser of local services, and facilitator of network mechanisms of local governance, coordinator of government providers and entities beyond government, mediator of conflicts, and developer of public capital. It is externally focused and competitive; ardent practitioner of alternative aid delivery framework; open, quick, and flexible, innovative. It is risk taker within limits, autonomous in taxing, spending, regulatory, and administrative decisions. It has managerial flexibility and accountability for results. It is participatory; and works to progress people voice and exit options straight through direct democracy provisions, citizens' charters, and operation budgeting. It is focused on earning trust, creating space for civic dialogue, serving the citizens, and improving public outcomes. It is fiscally prudent; works better and costs less, inclusive and participatory. It overcomes store and government failures. Local government is associated in a globalized and localized world

1.2. Citizen-centered local governance:

Reforming the institutions of local governance requires bargain on basic principles. Three basic law are developed to start such a discussion:

* Responsive governance: This principle aims for governments to do the right things-that is, to deliver services consistent with people preferences.
* Responsible governance: The government should also do it right-that is, conduct its fiscal resources prudently. It should earn the trust of residents by working better and costing less and by managing fiscal and public risks for the community. It should strive to heighten the quality and quantity of and access to public services. To do so, it needs to benchmark its operation with the best-performing local government.
* Accountable governance: A local government should be accountable to its electorate. It should adhere to standard safeguards to ensure that it serves the public interest with integrity. Legal and institutional reforms may be needed to enable local governments to deal with accountability in the middle of elections-reforms such as a citizen's charter and a provision for recall of public officials.

The distinguishing features of citizen-centered governance are the following:

* people empowerment straight through a rights-based approach (direct democracy provisions, citizens' charter);
* Bottom-up accountability for results;
* evaluation of government operation as the facilitator of a network of providers by citizens as governors, taxpayers, and consumers of public services.

1.3. Local government as an convention to progress self-interest: The public option approach:

The approach has conceptualized four models of local government:

* A local government that assumes it knows best and acts to maximize the welfare of its residents conforms to the benevolent despot model.
* A local government that provides services consistent with local residents' willingness to pay conforms to the fiscal replacement model.
* A local government that focuses on public aid provision to progress public objectives conforms to the fiscal replacement model.
* A local government that is captured by self-interested bureaucrats and politicians conforms to the leviathan model, which is consistent with the public option perspectives.

1.4. Local government as an independent facilitator of creating public value: new public administration (Npm) perspectives:

Two interrelated criteria have emerged from the Npm literature in modern years determining, first, what local governments should do and, second, how they should do it better. In discussing the first criterion, the literature assumes that citizens are the principals but have manifold roles as governors (owner-authorizers, voters, taxpayers, society members); activist-producers (providers of services, co-producers, self-helpers obliging others to act); and consumers (clients and beneficiaries). In this context, valuable emphasis is settled on the government as an agent of the people to serve public interest and create public value. This belief is directly relevant to local and municipal services, for which it is feasible to portion such improvements and have some sense of attribution. The belief is useful in evaluating conflicting and perplexing choices in the use of local resources. The belief is also helpful in defining the role of government, especially local governments. It frames the moot in the middle of those who argue that the public sector crowds out incommunicable sector investments and those who argue that the public sector creates an enabling environment for the incommunicable sector to succeed, in increasing to providing basic municipal and public services.

2. History of Local Government Institutions in Bangladesh:

Bangladesh shares its history with the undivided Indian subcontinent. The British in India in fact gave local government a legal shape with municipal administration law for the first time in 1793. But, prior to that, an selfsame law of local hamlet society did exist in India, where Gram Panchayet (local government hamlet tier) had a valuable role. In the gradual amelioration of the system, the Bengal Act 1842 and Municipal Act 1850 were introduced. The local government law got a stronger foundation when 118 Municipal Boards were formed in Bengal in 1947 after inclusion of provisions relating to a newer law of public arbitrations, conservancy activities and appointment of choukidars (guards) for maintaining protection in villages and towns. In 1972, the local government law got a newer magnitude in independent Bangladesh.

After independence of Bangladesh in 1971, the Constitution of Bangladesh emphasizes the need for establishing local government with a representative character (Chapter 3, narrative 59). narrative 59 mandates the creation of elected local bodies at each administrative unit- District, Upazila (sub-district) and Union (currently bottom tier of local government). To put it simply, these bodies are for the administration of local affairs by locally elected persons. Local government, by definition, is democratic self-governance and so accountable to the people.

There are two types of local government settings in Bangladesh, rural and urban. At the rural level the existing law provides a three-tier structure, which is Zila (district) Parishad (office), Upazila Parishad, and Union Parishad (Up). At the urban level the six largest cities have City Corporation status, while the rest are known as Pourashavas or Municipalities. These bodies are entrusted with a large estimate of functions and responsibilities relating to civic and society welfare as well as local development.

The Up is responsible for executing 48 duties. Among them 38 are optional and 10 mandatory. These responsibilities are divided into four categories. These are civic duties (building roads, bridges etc), tax collection, maintaining law and order, and lastly amelioration work. In spite of the point and inherent of local government institutions, they remain weak in Bangladesh. The past few years show they have become even weaker.

3. Challenges of Local Government Institutions in Bangladesh:

3.1. Attitude of public administrators toward local governments:

Bureaucracies resist changes out of the fear of alteration or disturbance of the status quo and their resistance primarily grows out of fear of disrupting organizational communication. According to Henry Frank Goodnow says, bureaucracy is a two-edged sword, which can be a force for good or for evil. It may prompt democracy or totalitarianism. It may be feared or respected or merely accepted. Joseph La Palomba comments, the proximity of a strong bureaucracy in many of the new states tends to inhibit the growth of strong executives, political parties, legislatures, voluntary associations and other political institutions valuable to viable democratic government.

Warren Bennis summarizes some of the deficiencies in bureaucracies, which adequately suit the characteristics of bureaucracies in Bangladesh as well:

* Bureaucracy does not adequately allow for personal growth and the amelioration of mature personalities.
* It does not take into account the "informal organization" and the emergent unanticipated problems.
* Its systems of control and authority are hopelessly outdated.
* It has no judicial process.
* It does not possess enough means for resolving variation and conflicts in the middle of ranks, and most particularly, in the middle of functional groups.
* transportation (and innovative ideas) are thwarted or distorted due to hierarchical decisions.
* The full human resources of bureaucracy are not being utilized due to mistrust, fear or reprisals, etc.
* It cannot assimilate the influx of new technology or scientists entering the organization.

3.2. Participation by the people:

The Constitution of Bangladesh implies direct participation of the people in forming the local bodies and in managing the affairs of such bodies. There are separate levels of participation, participation in decision-making, participation in implementation, participation in benefits, and participation in evaluation.

But in reality, the spirit of people's participation in local bodies has not always been adequately maintained. The society of Bangladesh is basically a hierarchic law based on a person's public position, caste, status, educational background, seniority, and gender. The principle of hierarchy in interpersonal relationship, is, and for hundreds of years has been standard as valuable and morally right in rural Bangladesh, even among the Muslims. In a hierarchic system, roles and duties in relation to others are defined in details. If these are not followed, chaos and friction are incredible to result.

A patron-client connection binds group members with specific norms and values. These norms determine role definition and role expectation, i.e., the role of a patron and a client. The belief of obedience and deference to patrons by a client is an leading value in a hierarchic society like Bangladesh. Patterns of rights and duties verbalize both order and equilibrium in our society. Superiors in the society are supposed to give orders and guidance to those with a lower status. people having low ranks are treated as children and they enjoy small opportunities. The patron-client or parent-child connection developed over centuries has taught the superiors to be harsh and commanding towards the subordinates, and has taught the subordinates to be respectful to afraid of the superiors of the society. Due to power distance in the society, the subordinates seek direction and guidance from the superiors. Subordinates or those with lower rank in the society feel dejected when they don't receive favor from the superiors. In practice, the people being loyal to the superiors are bestowed with favors (even undue), and those who do not are distanced and discriminated.

This dynamics of public confidence and behavior inhibits the coarse mass in participating in decision production process of the local government institutions, or holding them accountable for their activities.

3.3. Structural defects:

Decentralization of political and administrative authority at the local government level that has the inherent to de-concentrate decision-making and bring people closer to public governance have the merit of weakening abuse of power, strengthening accountability and combating corruption convincingly. This is revealed straight through a modern Un explore that demonstrates that introduction of explain audit systems, corruption commissions etc. Without due regard to the rule of law, independence of judiciary, civil liberties, economic and political decentralization make small or no impact on corruption. Corruption resells in loss of confidence in local government among the people. Funds for projects like Food for Work or disaster relief are all too often misused by local leaders; even Vgf (Vulnerable Group Feeding) cards go to their relatives and friends rather than those who admittedly need it.

The extent and quality of people's participation have been variable. The most direct participation is the opportunity of casting votes while the choice to local bodies. But elections are not held at quarterly intervals. Since Independence in 1971, successive governments have tried to use the local government law for their own political interests. The party or regime in power wanted to make the local government representatives their power base and manipulated the law to this end.

Regarding the structural or constitutional defects in local government, it can be said that the country is being governed straight through a constitutional, democratic system, while local government is being run straight through a presidential system. In local government all the powers centre Colse to one person. This unchallenged power of an personel is giving rise to corruption and autocracy in local government bodies, where a chairman of a Up or municipality, or the mayor of a city corporation, enjoys all the power. Members of a Up and the ward commissioners of municipalities or city corporations hardly have any role in the implementation of any amelioration project or agenda in the locality.

They fear local administrations might be rendered ineffective and law makers might end up lording over Upazila Parishads, running the risk of letting corruption creep into the system, if Mps (Members of Parliament) are allowed to have their old controlling authority over the elected local governments.

Recently National build of Local Government (Nilg) and Volunteer aid Overseas (Vso) Bangladesh jointly conducted a study titled "Exploring the challenges and potentials of Up standing committees", which was intended to explore the role of standing committees in the decision production process at the Ups. The study narrative published on 6 May 2009 says that 60% of the committees are not functioning, and it identifies some major reasons for non-functioning of the standing committees, such as, apathy of Up chairmen, ignorance of members and lack of resources and allowable monitoring system. The narrative says the Up chairmen dominate while taking decisions and do not think that the committees are very leading in this regard.

3.4. Lack of fund and work on in fund utilization:

Up receives a major portion of the funds from the every year amelioration Programme (Adp). This funding law is full of loopholes creating serious setbacks in amelioration activities. Funding by Adp is paid in installments, which are called block grants. This block grant does not flow to the Up directly; rather it is channeled straight through the Upazila. At the Upazila level interference from the administration regularly slows down the flow and hampers the amelioration plan. The criteria for allocation include on population, size of an area and the level of backwardness. As the administration controls the distribution process, it tends to be biased.

The allocation is also prone to political interference. The interference by Mps in the Up affairs, particularly in amelioration activities, has weakened the Ups' independence. The Mps often dictate the amelioration activities to be undertaken, most of the times without consulting with the local elected representatives or assessing actual needs. Ruling party Mps tend to intrude more in the Ups' amelioration planning. Even if there is no ruling party Mp in the area the local leaders of the ruling party meddle in the process.

Moreover, the Up authorities regularly have no idea how much money they are about to receive, which makes planning for time to come amelioration work impractical. The amelioration projects get stalled if the installments do not arrive on time, which is often the case. Most Ups receive the installments when the fiscal year is about to end.

Adp allocation to Up is less than 2 per cent of the every year budget. For amelioration activities, this estimate is considered inadequate. The maximum estimate in implementing a amelioration project is only Tk 50,000 which is also insufficient. Furthermore, this fund is not released unless bribes are paid, as local Up members claimed.

3.5. Political government's willful stance on local government institutions:

The new Upazila Pashishad Act passed by the current Awami League government provides that the Members of Parliament would be advisers to the Upazila Parishads. According to the law, no amelioration plans can be taken or no programs can be implemented by the Upazila Parishads without the guidance of the implicated Mps, and even any transportation in the middle of Upazilas and the government must be informed to the Mps. This act explicitly contradicts the belief of contemporary government with its three branches - legislative, administrative and judiciary - being mutually interdependent. While the voice gets stronger for disunion of powers among its branches in order to ensure checks and balances, the government rather tends to merge the branches into one. In principle, the legislators are supposed to enact laws, make budgetary allocations, moot course issues, approve foreign treaties, and most importantly exercise parliamentary oversight over the administrative actions straight through standing committees. This act is in contradiction with narrative 59 of the Constitution, which empowers the locally elected persons to run local affairs. In the name of advice, the Mps will obviously exert their authority to control the affairs of the local bodies, which denounces the democratic spirit of representative local bodies.

A judgment in 2008 by Justices Abm Khairul Haque and Atm Fazle Kabir states that "The Local Government Bodies in every administrative units of the Republic are charged with the functions relating to administration and the work of public officers in the local area, the maintenance of local order and other nation-building amelioration activities there. Neither the Ministers nor the members of Parliament can abdicate the functions of the elected members of the Local Government Bodies in respect of their functions in the implicated administrative units." It further says, "While the administrative Government under chapter-Ii would run the administration, amelioration and other ancillary matters for the whole country as a whole, but at the same time the people at the grass-root level should also be made responsible for the amelioration of their own respective areas, on the formation of local government bodies, in order to bring the amelioration and also administration to their door steps so that they can be responsible as well as self-reliant and also become part of the over-all nation building process."

In an additional one judgment in 1992, the supreme Court holds that "Parliament is not free to legislate on local government ignoring Articles 59 and 60." It further states about the functions of local government bodies... "local elections, course for public accountability, independent and colossal sources of income, clear areas of independent activity and certainty of powers and duties and the conditions under which they would be exercised."

As per the law, at least theoretically, the Upazila Parishads have lost their characteristics of local government bodies, since in the name of advice, the Mps are authorized to control the activities of the bodies.

Squeezing the hope for sufficient local government:

As a matter of fact, what one has come to expect in Bangladesh is that after a party is overwhelmingly voted into power, they try and monopolize as much power as they can get, appoint loyal people to leading posts and then seemingly do everything inherent to tarnish their names. The current government has respected its own choice pledges to progress local government, and has abused its mandate as well. There was a hope that the current government would provide further authority to the Upazila chairmen by changing the old Upazila ordinances, but practically the government has abolished the local government commission.

The current law has already given rise to a row among Upazila chairmen and Mps, and it is likely that this discord will work on the chain of the party leadership, which will further destabilize the political arena of the country. The Parishads will face serious difficulties if the Mps are provided with offices in Upazila Parishad complexes, and it might also disrupt local development. Interference of Mps with the functioning of the local government has been blatant, they said alleging that lawmakers want to get involved in Upazila level amelioration because an colossal estimate of money is circulated straight through the local amelioration circuit.

A group of newly elected representatives of Upazila Parishad in a view-exchange meeting at Jatiya (national) Press Club threatened to verbalize lawmakers persona-non-grata in Upazila Parishd involved areas if the Upazila Parishad Act 2009 is not cancelled immediately. They also formed a forum titled "Bangladesh Upazila Chairmen Forum". Colse to 250 Up representatives attended the meeting that decided to hold a council of the forum within three months. The chairmen at the meeting also threatened to start a tough movement to perceive their ask for scrapping the Upazila Parishad Act 2009 and ensure the democratic rights of Up representatives. They feared that taking advantage of the act's provisions, lawmakers might misuse their power and indulge in corruption. This act will create obstacles for local administrations to conducting amelioration works freely, they added.

3.6. choice of honest and excellent people in a free and fair environment:

It is an leading task for us to elect honest and competent people in the next choice for the progress of the society. We have noticed how black money and muscle power have dominated in the elections in the last 15 years. What can we expect from those who are going to power straight through such a system? It is useless to expect anyone good from them. Use of money was generally seen in the local government elections to buy votes to go to power. Culture of accumulation of wealthy and influential members, irrespective of their criminal records, and creation of incommunicable army by providing illegal facilities and protection is predominantly existent in the society. That provides the look in a political structure of wealth and physical vigor and carries more weight as regards its effectiveness in choice and other political operations in the gift day public context. Due to hierarchical public law and taboos, absence of equality, public justice and spoton laws, and proximity of muscle power and black money, and due to political pressure from above, we see time and again practically the same people, or people with same negative or not clear characters, being elected in local government institutions.

3.7. Intervention by central government:

Local government leadership and representation is now only equated with getting elected, with no meaningful mechanisms of representation or functionality. The local government bodies have virtually no power to plan and execute amelioration actions or to formulate their budgets independently. The Up chair and members who are accountable to the voters soon perceive the fact that they have practically no power to serve the people and work for local development. Vital services like education, health, and public welfare are centralized at the Upazila level. The leaders have practically no administration role in these matters, rather the administration at the Upazila level control these services.

Here are few observations concerning local government by leading people:

* The local government cannot be strong enough in a country where the local government ministry is too strong and intends to control it. - Dr Mahabbat Khan, Professor of Dhaka University (Du)
* It seems that the local government institutions act like a front organization of the ruling party. They should be independent and a local government commission, not any ministry, should control them. - Prof Dr Salahuddin M. Alimuzzaman, Du
* According to the constitution, the government should encourage the local government institutions, not control them. But some local government institutions are run by administrative officials, which is a violation of the constitution. Although laws allow the local government institutions to perceive holding taxes, we cannot do it because of administrative orders. - Advocate Azmatullah Khan, president of Municipality connection of Bangladesh
* "The people of Bangladesh were very shocked when the government increased the control of lawmakers over the local government against its pledge of strengthening the local government." - Shaheen Anam, administrative director of Manusher Jonno
* The government does not want to keep the local government anymore as it wants to run the lower tier of the government with the lawmakers and own people. - Matiur Rahman Tapan, chairman of a Up, said in a roundtable
* It is not a struggle in the middle of the Mps and local representatives rather it is basically a qoute of political culture. - Mahmudur Rahman Manna, Organizing Secretary of Awami League

3.8. Some core issues revealed by Prof Aminuzzaman:

* lack of farranging planning for decentralization;
* absence of wider consultation with people before devising decentralization strategies;
* lack of mobilization of popular withhold in the reform process;
* over-emphasis on deconcentration in the decentralization plans;
* bureaucratic expansion in the name of decentralization;
* bureaucratic dominance remained intact even after decentralization;
* inadequate power and authority to people's representatives;

The tendency to cry out for decentralization in public and suffocating the sincere efforts in convention is still the order of the day in Bangladesh and most other developing countries. Though the perennial bureaucratic resistance is the valuable culprit in this scam, collusive and docile political leaders cannot deny their share.

Professor Dr. Tofael Ahmed (Professor, Chittagong University) and Professor Dr. Niaz Ahmed Khan, Du in Banglapedia (www.banglapedia.org) say, decentralization scenario in Bangladesh is small encouraging. In their words, evolution of decentralization in Bangladesh is characterized by: (a) domination by and complete dependence on central/national government; (b) unrepresentative character; (c) grossly inadequate mobilization of local resources; (d) small or lack of participation of the rural poor in the decentralized bodies; (e) successive regimes' marginal and superficial commitment to devolution or decentralization in practice.

Prof Aminuzzaman further said, it seems that the local government institutions act like a front organization of the ruling party. They should be independent and a local government commission, not any ministry, should control them.

It is utterly unfortunate that Upazilla level of Bangladesh local government, which has the makings of being a strong local government body, is not being put into operation only because of resistance from the elected lawmakers afraid of losing their supremacy in their respective constituencies.

3.9. Power distance as an obstacle to local government:

Most importantly, and somewhat paradoxically, a culture of accountability springs from an interaction in the middle of civil society and standard institutions, which generally have to be created by a strong central political force. However, the evidence from Bangladesh is more ambiguous on this point, suggesting that while decentralization was a valuable catalyst for associational activity, the prevailing servant-master relationships in the middle of villagers and bureaucrats and council representatives did not admittedly withhold the production of complaints about bad behavior or lack of accountability.

4. Ways Out:

* For strengthening local government bodies, the hegemony of Mps, particularly imposed by the modern Act, must be curtailed.
* To make the local government institutions more functional, we need a decentralization course in the light of our Constitutions.
* The political governments should not enact any laws, which undermine the spirit of the Constitution, or violates any articles.
* For increasing earnings of the local government bodies, land replacement fees can be increased, the local government bodies can be authorized to use jetties, water bodies and khaslands (state owned lands) and levy tax on galvanic poles, movable phone towers and bill boards, will significantly growth the earnings of the local government bodies.
* Strengthening local government is the primary objective of the upazila system. Thus, agriculture, land administration, condition and family planning, primary education, rural electrification, poultry, fisheries, live stocks, horticulture, public forestry, milk production, cooperatives marketing, etc. Should be transferred to the Upazila Parishad. There should be, in fact, more devolution of power and delegation of authority to the Upazila Parishad.
* Large allocation from the Adp can be given for meeting financial needs of the local government institutions, which will build their capacity and will ensure grassroots development.
* The Ups can be authorized to build roads, culverts and bridges in their respective areas.
* Honorarium of elected chairmen and members need to be enhanced, and an environment can be created so that honest and competent people could be elected.
* The current Upazila Act should be amended immediately.
* Activation of the Up standing committees can be done straight through joint monitoring and administration by both public agencies and civil society bodies.

5. Conclusion:

Experiences in other parts of the world show that the closer the authorities and resources are to the people, the greater the benefits they bring for society. In Bangladesh, local government structures remain weak, posing as a major obstacle in achieving the goal of poverty alleviation programs. Local government as a political convention to ensure amelioration and public participation in amelioration activities is far from being an sufficient tool of governance in Bangladesh. Being mostly poor and illiterate, particularly at the grassroots, the people hardly go to bureaucrats with their problems because they are afraid to approach them. As such, they approach the local public representatives, whom they reconsider as local guardians well aware of their needs and feelings. But, no step was ever made to train them up. Elected local bodies in the administrative units in fact ensure sufficient participation of the people in decisions that work on them, and this participation is a prerequisite for creating a democratic polity at all levels, which will deepen its roots. If people's voices are heard, and their opportunities of participation are upheld, democracy can be strengthened. If local government bodies are not strong and well functioning, amelioration at the grassroots level cannot be ensured. To materialize the dream of building a democratic Bangladesh free from poverty, building a strong local government is a must. As such, bringing about reforms in the local government is now the ask of the time. The charter of change or vision 2021, to turn Bangladesh into a respectable nation with the transformation of political culture and production the society corruption free, will be difficult to achieve unless a strong, honest and dedicated local level governance law emerges to withhold the central government.

Challenges of Local Government Institutions in Bangladesh

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staggering Suv Reliability Ratings 2011 - Cr's Top 5 and Worst 10 Small, Midsize, Luxury, Large Suvs

Consumer Reports recently released its predictions of short-term reliability for sport-utility vehicles. The predictions are based on the infrequency of serious problems within the most-recent 3 or fewer model years, depending on the availability of data. This description lists the Top 5 and bottom 10 by Cr's unbelievable reliability in each of the categories Small Suvs, Midsize Suvs, Luxury Suvs, and Large Suvs.

The Top 5 Small Suvs of 2011 by Cr's unbelievable short-term reliability are:

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Honda Cr-V
V6 Toyota Rav4
Mitsubishi Outlander
4-cylinder Toyota Rav4
Non-turbo Subaru Forester.

The Honda Cr-V and the 4-cylinder Rav4 have an exquisite 2010 long-term reliability history as well. The Cr-V has buyer Reports highest reliability rating (Much great Than Average) for 8 of the 2000 to 2009 model years and its second highest rating (Better Than Average) for the remaining two model years. The 4-cylinder Rav4 has Cr's highest rating for 9 of the model years and its second highest rating for the remaining model year.

The Top 5 Midsize Suvs of 2011 are:

Toyota Fj Cruiser
4-cylinder Toyota Highlander
V6 Toyota Highlander
V6 Hyundai Santa Fe
Nissan Pathfinder.

Of these 5, the V6 Toyota Highlander has an exquisite long-term reliability history. For the model years 2000 to 2009, it has Cr's highest rating for 9 of the model years and its second highest rating for the remaining model year.

The Top 5 Luxury Suvs of 2011 are:

Lexus Lx
Acura Mdx
Lincoln Navigator
Lexus Rx350
Lincoln Mkt.

The Lexus Rx and the Lexus Lx have exquisite long-term reliability ratings as well. For 2010, the Rx has Cr's highest reliability rating for 9 of the ten most up-to-date model years and its second highest rating for the remaining model year. The large made-in-Japan Lexus Lx has Cr's highest rating for 8 of its 9-year data history and its second highest rating for the remaining year.

The Acura Mdx has a less famed history, with a Much-Better-Than-Average rating for only 3 of the model years and a Better-Than-Average rating for the remaining 6 model years.

The Top 5 Large Suvs are:

Ecoboost Ford Flex
Toyota Sequoia
Front-wheel-drive Chevrolet Traverse
Chevrolet Suburban 2500
Yukon Xl 2500.

The Ecoboost rating is based on only one model year of data. The Toyota Sequoia has only a mediocre long-term reliability, although it has a famed 2011 reliability rating. The 2011 rating of the Traverse, Suburban, and Xl are rather mediocre. It may be best to avoid this group entirely, unless the price of a luxury sport-utility vehicle is prohibitive or vehicular dimensions force a purchase.

The bottom 10 (11 by tie) Small Suvs by 2011 unbelievable short-term reliability, in ascending order (worst first), are:

Dodge Nitro
Jeep Liberty
4-cylinder, all-wheel-drive Mazda Tribute
4-cylinder, all-wheel-drive Ford Escape
V6, all-wheel-drive Mazda Tribute
V6, all-wheel-drive Ford Escape
Jeep Compass
V6, front-wheel-drive Mazda Tribute
V6, front-wheel-drive Ford Escape
4-cylinder, front-wheel-drive Mazda Tribute
4-cylinder, front-wheel-drive Ford Escape.

The Dodge Nitro and Jeep freedom have fared poorly in avoiding reported serious problems. For model years 2007 and 2008 (the only two gift reliability ratings in 2010), the Nitro had one Much-Worse-Than-Average rating and one Worse-Than-Average rating. For the Jeep Liberty's four most-recent model years, two of the 2010 reliability ratings were Much Worse Than mean and two were Worse Than Average.

The bottom 10 Midsize Suvs, with worst first, are:

Dodge Journey
4-door Jeep Wrangler
4-cylinder Gmc Terrain
V6 Gmc Terrain
Nissan Xtrerra
Turbo Mazda Cx-7
Hyundai Veracruz
2-door Jeep Wrangler
V6 Chevrolet Equinox
V6 Kia Sorento.

Notable for poor 2010 longer-term reliability ratings are the Chevrolet Equinox and Kia Sorento. The Equinox has 3 Much-Worse-Than-Average or Worse-Than-Average ratings out of its 5-year data history and the Sorento has 4 such out of its 6-year data history.

The bottom 10 Luxury Suvs, with worst first, are:

Turbo-diesel Mercedes-Benz Gl-Class
6-cylinder Bmw X5
Turbo-diesel Bmw X5
V8 Mercedes-Benz Gl-Class
Mercedes-Benz R-Class
Audi Q7
Cadillac Escalade
All-wheel-drive Buick Enclave
V6 Mercedes-Benz M-Class
Lexus Gx.

The V8 Mercedes-Benz Gl-Class has below mean reliability ratings for both model years of its 2-year 2010 data history, the 6-cylinder Bmw X5 has below mean ratings for 7 of its 9-year reliability history, and the all-wheel-drive Buick Enclave has one below mean rating in its 2-year data history. The Lexus Gx has one below mean rating, but the remaining 5 ratings are above mean and one is Much-Better-Than-Average. Consequently, as one descends on this list, longer-term reliability seems to heighten with unbelievable short-term reliability.

The bottom 10 Large Suvs, with worst first, are:

Gmc Yukon Hybrid
Chevrolet Tahoe Hybrid
Front-wheel-drive Gmc Acadia
All-wheel-drive Gmc Acadia
All-wheel-drive Ford Flex
Nissan Armada
Gmc Yukon
Chevrolet Tahoe
Gmc Yukon Xl 1500
Chevrolet Suburban 1500.

Consumer Reports' reliability ratings are widely respected and followed by North American consumers seeking high capability products. H a low probability of serious problems.

staggering Suv Reliability Ratings 2011 - Cr's Top 5 and Worst 10 Small, Midsize, Luxury, Large Suvs

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The greatest Gas Furnace Troubleshooting Guide

Looking for some quick tips on how to keep your gas furnace in tip-top shape this winter? The ultimate Gas Furnace Troubleshooting Guide will acknowledge all of your questions, together with how to turn on a furnace, how to turn a furnace filter, how to test a furnace's airflow, what to do if a furnace doesn't ignite, and much more.

We hope you find this guide to be useful - and we hope you stay warm this winter!

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A) How to Turn On Your Gas Furnace

It sounds easy, but believe it or not, many habitancy don't know how to turn their furnace on or off. Here's a simple, step-by-step breakdown:

* Find the breaker for your furnace. It's part of the electrical panel, which is normally placed in your basement, utility room or garage. The breaker should be clearly labeled with a gas furnace sticker. Turn the breaker to the "On" position.

* locate and turn on the furnace switch. It is typically somewhere near the bottom of your basement stairs - sometimes in the ceiling, sometimes in the furnace room itself, and normally at eye level or slightly higher.

* Set your thermostat. Check that the furnace is on and then make sure that the selector switch is set to "Heat". Finally, adjust your set point temperature, and that's it - your furnace is turned and ready to heat your home!

B) How to Check and turn Your Furnace Filter

Proper maintenance of your furnace filter can help optimize airflow from your furnace, which will keep it running efficiently and economically while the coldest months of the year. To preclude burnout of your furnace parts, we suggest inspecting your filter monthly and changing it every three to six months. Here's how it's done:

* Begin by determined chance the furnace's external rack or panel door.

* remove the furnace filter by sliding it out. Take a look at the filter to see if there's any darkness or discoloration.

* If you can't see through the filter, it's absolutely time for a new one. Slide the new filter into the furnace, development sure that it is installed in the direction of the airflow. And that's it - you're done!

C) How to Test Your Furnace's Airflow

If a room in your house is too cold while the winer, it might be because your furnace isn't supplying sufficient warm air through the registers in that single room. There's a easy way to test the airflow from your furnace registers to make sure they are working properly -- the garbage bag airflow test.

The test is a quick way to assessment airflow by determining how long it takes to fill a base plastic garbage bag. While it is not a definite measurement, it is better than no determination at all and will give you a good ideas as to whether you need to call a technician to look at your ductwork.

To do the garbage bag airflow test:

* Tape the mouth of the garbage bag to a coat hanger or piece of cardboard to keep it open.
* Crush the bag flat and place it over the register or exhaust hood.
* Count the amount of seconds it takes for the bag to fully inflate.

If the inflation time is:

* 2 seconds = 37 L/s (75 cfm)
* 4 seconds = 20 L/s (40 cfm)
* 10 seconds = 10 L/s (20 cfm)

If the measured airflow is less than 10 L/s, the furnace is delivering only a small amount of heat to a room and needs to be further inspected to decree why the heat is not going through.

The garbage bag airflow test is also useful if you have changed your heating or cooling systems or have made major renovations to your house.

D) If Your Gas Furnace Fails to Ignite

If you can hear that your furnace is on and the fan is running, but all you're getting is cold air, you likely have ignition failure. Try resetting your furnace by turning the switch to off for at least ten seconds, then, turning it on again. If that doesn't do the trick, give your Hvac undertaker of a package deal a call.

E) Furnace Troubleshooting Checklist

Think your gas furnace has quit? You could save yourself the cost of a no-heat assistance call by checking the following:

* Is the furnace switch in the on position? It may have been turned off by mistake.

* Is the thermostat properly set to the "heat" position and the temperature set to your normal heat setting?

* Is the furnace venting blocked by snow or ice? If so, try to remove the blockage.

* Are the programmable thermostat batteries fresh?

* Is the circuit breaker in the electric panel in the allowable position?

* Is the furnace door properly closed?

* Has the filter been changed recently? If you've checked all on the list and your furnace still isn't working, give your local Hvac undertaker of a package deal a call, and they'll get your furnace back up and running as soon as possible.

F) How to Properly remove Vent Blockages

If you become aware of a furnace question that might involve the surface vent, do a quick inspection and see if any snow, ice or some base household item might be blocking the vent. If so, before removing the obstruction, head inside first and turn the off the power to your furnace. Now, you can safely clear away anything is blocking your surface vent. Once you're done, turn your furnace back on using whether the breaker or the switch.

A lack of airflow through the furnace's interior vents could mean your furnace fan motor has seized. If this has happened, don't try to fix the question yourself - experience the scholar furnace mend technicians at your local Hvac contractor.

G) How to Stop Air Leaks and preclude Heat Loss

Air leaks inventory for a indispensable amount of a home's heat loss in winter - resulting in increased heating costs as your furnace constantly tries to replace the warm air that has escaped from your home. Fixing these leaks will save you money on your heating bills.

To stop leaks around windows and doors:

* remove the trims carefully.
* Fill large cracks or gaps with foam backer rod, oakum, or addition polyurethane foam.
* Replace the trims and caulk along the edges.

To stop leaks along baseboards:

* Caulk along the seams without removing the baseboard.
* remove the baseboard and caulk in the middle of the wall and the floor.

To stop leaks around electrical outlets on surface walls:

* Turn off power to the outlet and remove the outlet cover.
* install a foam insulating pad.
* Replace the outlet cover turn the power back on to the outlet.

To stop leaks in an unfinished basement:

* Caulk under the basement sill plate and around the joists with a rubber-based caulking or acoustical sealant.
* Caulk any gaps where ducts enter a wall or ceiling.
* Insulate ducts with preformed wraps or duct-taped insulation batts.

To stop leaks in your attic:

* Seal any cracks.
* Weather strip your attic door and close it tightly.

H) If a Gas Smell is Detected

In the unlikely event that you smell something like a rotten egg smell, you could have a gas leak. Don't turn on any electrical switches and open all of your windows. Then, go to a neighbour's house and experience your Hvac undertaker of a package deal or your local gas supplier immediately.

The greatest Gas Furnace Troubleshooting Guide

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How to Build a straightforward Computer Desk

Back a few years ago I decided I needed to buy a computer desk. After seeing around at a half dozen furniture stores and agency stores, I came to the closing that there were only two types of computer desks on the market; very high-priced ones from high end furniture stores and pressed board garbage from low cost box stores. Neither noteworthy my funds or tastes, but I needed a computer desk.

It was while this realization that I came up with an idea of construction my own easy computer desk. I remember seeing standalone kitchen cabinets for sale at one of the local home correction stores. I thought, hey if I could affix a countertop face to two kitchen cabinets I'd have a functional computer desk.

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Finding the Components for my Computer Desk

With the idea in mind I grabbed my tape portion and drove to a local home correction store. The store had numerous standalone kitchen cabinets for sale, made from all types of wood. Some were low end constructed, while others were more high-end constructed. I found one cabinet that consisted of a top drawer and a large front door with adjustable shelves. I then found other cabinet consisting entirely of a column of drawers. After pulling them aside, I then visited the countertop area of the store, and surprisingly I found pre-fabricated 5 foot countertops for sale. I excellent one that was aesthetically absorbing to me and rested it on top of the two kitchen cabinets. I spaced the two kitchen cabinets apart so that they were placed at the far ends of the countertop to allow room for a chair and seating. I then made a height determination and considered that the only modification required was to cut about 2 inches off the lowest of each kitchen cabinet.

Building a Computer Desk

With my desk idea nearly realized, I purchased the two kitchen cabinets and countertop and brought them home for assembly.

Using a skill saw I removed two inches of the base of the cabinets. This was easy to do since the cabinets had about a 3 inch area below the fixed base cabinet shelf and the drawers that was effectively empty space. I then positioned the two cabinet pieces in my office area and mounted the kitchen countertop to the two cabinets using screws and brackets.

Finally, I mounted a keyboard tray slider to the underside of the countertop and my good seeing and functional computer desk was ready for use.

Note: Keyboard tray sliders can be found at most office stores.

How to Build a straightforward Computer Desk

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Tiling a Shower - Floor, Ceiling, Walls

Tiling a shower is no doubt an ambitious undertaking. It is a challenge that many homeowners take on though. The most mysterious part of building a shower is the constructing of a shower pan. How do you keep it from leaking? Well, you can use a prefabricated shower pan and avoid the approved masonry construction. But many folks tackle building a shower pan themselves. So where do you start when building a shower?

The Shower Floor

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Build the shower floor first. The shower floor you see as ceramic tile and grout is not waterproof. The tile and especially the grout are porous and so a liner under the exterior of the floor is needed to keep the water from damaging the area nearby the shower. When a shower pan leaks, some part of the waterproofing plan has failed.

A shower floor is constructed on top of a solid base. It could be subfloor or it could be concrete. A special shower drain is set in place first. This drain has two sets of drain holes, one above the other. A layer of masonry is poured in place sloped to the lowest set of holes. Place on top of the sloped mortar a special vinyl membrane. This vinyl sheet is genuinely the waterproof layer of the floor.

The membrane is glued to the base of the drain so you then have a waterproof liner which is run up the wall several inches too.

Now above the liner a second layer of mortar is poured that is sloped toward the drain to serve as the base for the tile. After the mortar dries for a couple of days the tile is set using thinset adhesive. Then the tile is grouted and the floor is ready.

Ceiling

If you will tile the ceiling, this step comes next. You can reserve the ceiling tiles with strips of plywood over each course. Hold the strips with lengths of 2x4 wedged in the middle of the shower pan and the ceiling.

Walls

Mark lines on the back wall and then on the sides. You'll need horizontal and vertical lines. If the shower walls partially enclose the front of the shower, you can use the back corners as the vertical working lines as long as the walls are plumb.

Spread adhesive on the back wall and set the tiles until complete. Then complete the sides and then the front. Put in place any fixtures like soap dishes as you move around. Finally, complete the trim nearby the door or threshold.

A ceramic tile shower is a involving project but one that many homeowners successfully tackle.

Tiling a Shower - Floor, Ceiling, Walls

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A Case Study of Lincoln galvanic

Nine out of ten new businesses fail within their first year. This is an alarming statistic that may in fact be more of a myth than truth. However, recent data suggests the same trend just not as extreme. according to Brian Headd and data from the U.S. Census, a more realistic figure suggests that 62% of businesses close within the first six years of operation (Headd 2). This raises the query of: What makes a victorious business? By analyzing and dissecting the intricacies of Lincoln Electric's consistently stellar operation as well as paying close attention to any keen financial pitfalls an rejoinder can be found.

Value in the Individual

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An assosication at its core is made up of individuals and equipment. Now which of these has the most work on over the success of that organization? Most emphasis must be placed on the individual because he is the one that can be creative, motivated, skilled, efficient, and responsive. The permissible function of supervision is to draw out these characteristics and encourage their increase in a sufficient setting. A large part of Lincoln Electric's (Le) success can be attributed to this unique and sufficient supervision style which ultimately leads to a competing advantage. No matter the economies of scale a huge corporation such as Ge can offer, the increased productivity level of a properly motivated individual production laborer can truly compensate for it. This supervision style is supplementary fostered straight through a compound of structural, strategic, and cultural norms within Le.

Structurally, Lincoln galvanic aims to flatten the hierarchical buildings and eliminate nonfunctional middle supervision positions. To do this, Le has fostered an "open-door" course in the middle of production workers and executives as well as created an Advisory Board that has representatives of the workers who meet with executives twice a month. Strategically, Le pushes for an integrated approach of maximizing production and reducing costs. Though this seems easy and simple, the effectiveness is in the details. Cost allowance will be explored at a later time, but to maximize output, Lincoln galvanic draws from its motivated employees. However, these employees are not simply motivated. This is the role of James Lincoln's Incentive supervision System. This ideas provides a tool to motivate all employees straight through bonuses that redistribute a large part of the corporation's each year profits. Two main results stem from this redistribution. First, there is a heightened sense of ownership in the firm from top to lowest because if the firm as a whole does well, everybody is compensated for it respectively.

Secondly, there is increased personal performance. This operation boost is the consequent of a sort of quiet competition within each work group. A definite bonus pool dollar whole is allotted to each work group, and the bonuses are then distributed to the members of that group according to their quantified relative operation on the semi-annual Merit Rating. Now the Merit Rating's function is to counteract some of the pitfalls of a strategy based on speed and efficiency. ordinarily the consequent of an emphasis on speed is the reduce of quality and safety. Each tenet of the Merit Rating (including Dependability, Quality, Output, and Ideas/Cooperation) is a reaction to the base shortcomings of a traditional production worker. By being rewarded for attendance, work quality, and offering of ideas on top of their piecework production leads to a well-rounded final goods that is produced at the permissible specifications in description time.

To supplementary the speed of production, Le places a strong emphasis on idea generation and laborer input. This allows for creative ideas and suggestions on the production process to be spread over the whole corporation. As a result, there is a strong and steady increase in Le's productivity per worker. The Merit ideas also serves to increase coordination by rewarding teamwork while at the same time introducing an element that is historically known to be one of the greatest efficiency drivers of all time: competition. Though this seems like teamwork and competition would be in conflict, they are not. Since there are only a inevitable whole of inherent Merit Points available, competition over these points in the middle of members of the work group exists. however the total payoff at the end of the year is split up based on the behalf of the corporation as a whole; therefore encouraging teamwork and idea sharing. This uncut Incentive supervision ideas unifies the direction of the workforce and leads to a balanced and sufficient set of goals that yields a strong competing benefit over rival companies. In a commodity commerce it is the process, not the product, that must prevail and be differentiated. Lincoln galvanic has found the exquisite process, but is it a universal process that can apply overseas?

Cost allowance and shop Expansion

The blind chase of behalf can truly lead to poor decision-making. That is why the means to creating income is vital. The query is how does a firm increase margins? Two easy choices exist: reduce costs, or increase production straight through expansion and efficiency. Lincoln galvanic has identified this dynamic duo and integrated it into the general firm strategy. To reduce costs, Le uses a range of strong firm tactics. There are three shifts on equipment, so it is constantly rotated and allows for no downtime on equipment. This prevents having excess capacity which leads to unnecessary overhead costs. Also, Le has aimed to flatten the buildings of the firm and eliminate levels of the assosication that detract from the established open transportation environment in the middle of workers and management. This reduces wage expenses and ultimately increases behalf margin.

The idea of guaranteed employment is other fantastic cost-reducing idea of James F. Lincoln. The cost of retaining employees on payroll is less than the cost to recruit and train motivated and creative workers. As a result, while downturns, Le did not layoff workers but would retrain and deploy them elsewhere in the company. This would encourage loyalty to the firm and very reduce laborer turnover, once again reducing cost to Lincoln galvanic straight through a range of quantitative as well as qualitative means. Lastly, there is the idea of tiny benefits enhanced profits. This enhancement reflected back to bonuses and worker's piecework recompense which put more operate in the hands of the individual with the share of money and compensated for their lack of benefits. Le's approach to maximizing production was explored previously, and the general consensus was a focus on developing a creative, motivated, and sufficient production laborer who consistently puts out more endeavor than a similar production laborer in other firm. other option to increase production is expansion into other markets.

Lincoln galvanic first expanded to Canada by chance a manufacturing plant in Toronto in 1925. About twenty years later, Le Canada adopted the Incentive supervision ideas (Ims) together with its each year bonus and piecework facets. Due to the similar cultural norms in the middle of the U.S. And Canada, this adjustment flowed smoothly. However, poor decision-making led to this application of the Ims in other markets, together with Europe and South America. friction resulted because the cultural values of the production laborer are different. Also, government regulation in Germany and Brazil led to major adjustments that undermined Le's incentive efforts. In Europe, workers valued benefits such as vacation time over each year bonuses. It was discovered that each year bonuses did tiny to increase individual production efficiency without the piecework aspect of the Ims. Piecework was in fact illegal in Germany.

Obviously if more planning or investigate had been done, this crucial fact would have been discovered and Le would have avoided expansion into Germany. The root of Lincoln Electric's troubles began with the quick expansionist mindset of George Willis. The main problem was the speed of the expansion. Le incurred long-term financial debt for the first time in the corporation's history. The added interest expense and permanent liability hurt future income statements heavily. A study of Lincoln Electric's Consolidated income Statement as well as the balance Sheet reveals some keen financial facts.

Starting in 1987, Le had no long-term debt. This skyrocketed along with the push for expansion in subsequent years to over 0 million in 1992. As the income Statement suggests, the height of this long-term debt matches with the first net loss of Lincoln Electric. Failure to operate spending and keep costs low (the historical competing benefit of Le) undermined the desire to increase production straight through expansion. other keen fact is that as sales leveled off in 1992 and 1993, general costs and expenses failed to coincide so they continued to rise until 1994 which happens to also be the first posted net income after the losses of 1992-93.

This determination of cost-reduction and shop expansion raises any questions. How can Lincoln galvanic prevent similar losses in the future? How closely correlated is the 1992-93 net loss with geographic expansion? What can Lincoln galvanic do in the future to avow its historical rapid increase and competing advantage?

Recommendations

So decision time has come about Indonesia. Is Indonesia ready and willing to match up with Lincoln Electric's strategy, or will it repel the incentives that are the key competing differentiators? After determination of Indonesia's economic and financial situation, I advise slow expansion into their welding market. The current distribution network of Tira and Sshj should be altered so that it can be refined and expanded. Though smaller, Sshj's strategy coincides with Le's more so than Tira's strategy. I advise using only Sshj salespeople because they highlight the cost-savings and benefits of Lincoln Electric's products while aiming to draw in new customers via Le's name recognition and credit for high-quality. Le should utilize cooptation to provide the firm with local contacts and recommendations so that previous errors in incentive supervision can be addressed and altered. Exact details of my recommended Indonesian expansion are specified in the following list:

o Combination of piecework and wage with a wage representing a figure slightly lower than the median Indonesian manufacturing laborer wage of 250,000 rupiah.

o No each year bonus because the economy is so shifty and evaporative that it would most likely not work on daily effort.

o Guaranteed employment would exist straight through the insight that economic turn would not threaten a workers job. Job safety would encourage intense loyalty and be a strong factor in construction a consistent workforce.

With this uncut entry strategy into the Indonesian market, I feel that Lincoln galvanic will only be met with success. This strategy encompasses the strongest aspects of Le's Cleveland incentive ideas while tailoring it to be profit-maximizing in the definite Indonesian environment. Gillespie should have no worries as he presents these plans to his colleagues because the foundations of this plan are rooted in the historically victorious traditions of Lincoln Electric, and have been adjusted to compensate for the differences that hindered previous global expansion.

A Case Study of Lincoln galvanic

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The divergence in the middle of Fiberglass Composite Columns And Fiberglass Columns

Architectural columns can be a great expanding to any new home or resumption project. There are many distinct column styles available today and knowing the difference in the middle of the assorted types of columns can go a long way in determining what will look best for your application.

The most favorite columns are made with fiberglass or a fiberglass composite material. The differences in the middle of the two materials are the amount of resin used, the thickness of the columns and the weight of the columns. Fiberglass composite columns are made of marble dust, resin and fiberglass. They have a wall thickness of practically ½" and are considerably heavier than fiberglass columns. Fiberglass columns have no marble dust in their composition. They are produced with fiberglass and resin only. Their wall thickness is practically 3/16", and they weigh practically 2 lbs. Per quadrate foot. Composite columns are load bearing and true fiberglass (Frp) columns are attractive column wraps.

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Both materials have their advantages. The composite columns are more prudent in the smaller sizes from 6" in diameter up to 12" in diameter. In the size range from 14"- 18" in diameter, both materials work equally well as far as cost factors are concerned. When you get into larger sizes, Frp columns can be more advantageous for your task because the lighter material costs less to install. For example, a composite column that is 18" in diameter could weigh as much as 400 lbs. A fiberglass column would weigh 125 lbs. You would not need to bring in a crane or a boom to maneuver and install the larger Frp columns. Specifications and personal option factor into which column works best for your project.

Another difference in the middle of the two materials concerns the use of attractive capitals with the columns. The Tuscan style capital and base fits both the composite column and the Frp column the same. These caps and bases side over the shaft on both conditions. They add no height and can as a matter of fact be trimmed on site, by cutting from the bottom of the shaft, to cut the column to your desired height. When you get to more attractive styles of capitals such as Roman Corinthian, Ionic, Scamozzi, Temple of Winds, modern Composite and others, the factory recipe will help rule which material to use. On the composite columns, the attractive capitals are made for load bearing capabilities. They are not designed to wrap colse to structural supports. This can cause problems when you are trying to hide a 4 x 4 post or I beam. The Frp capitals are a thin walled hollowed shell made for the purpose of wrapping colse to structural posts.

Both materials come in a collection of styles and sizes fluctuating from round and square, flat and fluted, tapered and right shaft.

The divergence in the middle of Fiberglass Composite Columns And Fiberglass Columns

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